What Happens to Rural Areas in a Collapse

Migratory pattern of people from rural to urban areas

Rural flight (or rural exodus) is the migratory pattern of peoples from rural areas into urban areas. It is urbanization seen from the rural perspective.

In modern times, it often occurs in a region post-obit the industrialization of agriculture—when fewer people are needed to bring the same amount of agricultural output to marketplace—and related agricultural services and industries are consolidated.

Historical trends [edit]

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, rural flight occurred in mostly localized regions. Pre-industrial societies did not experience large rural-urban migration flows primarily due to the inability of cities to support large populations. Lack of big employment industries, loftier urban bloodshed, and depression food supplies all served as checks keeping pre-industrial cities much smaller than their modern counterparts. Ancient Athens and Rome, scholars estimate, had acme populations of 80,000 and 500,000.^[ii]

The onset of the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the belatedly 19th century removed many of these checks. As food supplies increased and stabilized and industrialized centers arose, cities began to back up larger populations, sparking the outset of rural flight on a massive scale.^[2] The United kingdom went from having xx% of the population living in urban areas in 1800 to more than than 70% by 1925.^[three] While the tardily 19th century and early on 20th century saw much of rural flight focused in Western Europe and the United States, as industrialization spread throughout the earth during the 20th century, rural flight and urbanization followed quickly behind. Today, rural flight is an especially distinctive phenomenon in some of the newer urbanized areas including Red china and more recently sub-Saharan Africa.^{[ii] [4]}

Dust Basin [edit]

The shift from mixed subsistence farming to commodity crops and livestock began in the tardily 19th century. New capital market systems and the railroad network began the trend towards larger farms that employed fewer people per acre. These larger farms used more efficient technologies such as steel plows, mechanical reapers, and higher-yield seed stock, which reduced homo input per unit of production.^[5] The other issue on the Great Plains was that people were using inappropriate farming techniques for the soil and weather conditions. Well-nigh homesteaders had family farms generally considered too small to survive (nether 320 acres), and European-American subsistence farming could not go along equally it was and then practiced.

During the Dust Bowl and the Great Depression of the 1930s, large numbers of people fled rural areas of the Great Plains and the Midwest due to depressed commodity prices and high debt loads exacerbated by several years of drought and large dust storms.^[6] Rural flight from the Great Plains has been depicted in literature, such every bit John Steinbeck'southward novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939), in which a family unit from the Great Plains migrates to California during the Grit Bowl period of the 1930s.

Mod rural flying [edit]

"Women leave in greater numbers than men. There is a glass ceiling for women everywhere, only in rural areas information technology tends to exist made of thick steel." Hiroya Masuda, writer of Japanese report on rural depopulation. ^[7]

Post-Globe State of war II rural flying has been acquired primarily past the spread of industrialized agriculture. Minor, labor-intensive family farms accept grown into, or take been replaced past, heavily mechanized and specialized industrial farms. While a minor family subcontract typically produced a wide range of crop, garden, and animal products—all requiring substantial labor—large industrial farms typically specialize in just a few ingather or livestock varieties, using big mechanism and high-density livestock containment systems that require a fraction of the labor per unit produced. For example, Iowa State Academy reports the number of hog farmers in Iowa dropped from 65,000 in 1980 to 10,000 in 2002, while the number of hogs per farm increased from 200 to 1,400.^[8]

The consolidation of the feed, seed, candy grain, and livestock industries has meant that there are fewer pocket-size businesses in rural areas. This decrease in turn exacerbated the decreased need for labor. Rural areas that used to be able to provide employment for all immature adults willing to work in challenging conditions, increasingly provide fewer opportunities for immature adults. The state of affairs is fabricated worse past the decrease in services such as schools, business concern, and cultural opportunities that back-trail the decline in population, and the increasing age of the remaining population farther stresses the social service system of rural areas.

Abandonment of small towns [edit]

The rising of corporate agricultural structures direct affects small rural communities, resulting in decreased populations, decreased incomes for some segments, increased income inequality, decreased community participation, fewer retail outlets and less retail trade, and increased ecology pollution.^[9] Human dehabitation of rural settlements is a megatrend in aging societies across the globe, possibly partially reversing a historic boom in land use for settlements that coincided with population growth that began in earnest alongside the spread of the industrial revolution and curative medicine.

Since the 1990s, China has merged schools into more centralized village-, town-, or county-level schools in rural areas to address some of these very problems.^{[10] [11]} Chernobyl is 1 example of how human abandonment of land can pb to the return of abundant beast life.^[12]

Determinants of rural flight [edit]

There are several determinants, push button and pull, that contribute to rural flying: lower levels of (perceived) economic opportunity in rural communities versus urban ones, lower levels of authorities investment in rural communities, greater teaching opportunities in cities, marriages, increased social credence in urban areas, and higher levels of rural fertility.

Economic determinants [edit]

Some migrants cull to go out rural communities out of the desire to pursue greater economic opportunity in urban areas. Greater economic opportunities tin can be existent or perceived. Co-ordinate to the Harris-Todaro Model, migration to urban areas will go along every bit long as "expected urban real income at the margin exceeds existent agronomical product" (127).^[13] However, sociologist Josef Gugler points out that while private benefits of increased wages may outweigh the costs of migration, if enough individuals follow this rationale, it tin can produce harmful effects such every bit overcrowding and unemployment on a national level.^[fourteen] This phenomenon, when the rate of urbanization outpaces the rate of economic growth, is known as overurbanization.^[15] Since the industrialization of agriculture, mechanization has reduced the number of jobs present in rural communities. Some scholars take as well attributed rural flight to the furnishings of globalization every bit the demand for increased economic competitiveness leads people to cull capital over labor.^[xvi] At the same time, rural fertility rates have historically been college than urban fertility rates.^[2] The combination of declining rural jobs and a persistently high rural fertility rate has led to rural-urban migration streams. Rural flight too contains a positive feedback loop where previous migrants from rural communities assist new migrants in adjusting to city life. Besides known as chain migration, migrant networks lower barriers to rural flight. For example, an overwhelming majority of rural migrants in Mainland china located jobs in urban areas through migrant networks.^[17]

Some families choose to transport their children to cities as a form of investment for the future. A written report conducted by Bates and Bennett (1974) concluded that rural communities in Republic of zambia that had other viable investment opportunities, like livestock for case, had lower rates of rural-urban migration as compared to regions without viable investment opportunities. Sending their children into cities can serve equally long-term investments with the hope that their children will be able to send remittances back dwelling subsequently getting a chore in the city.^[18]

There are severe challenges faced by poorer people in the agronomics sector because of diminishing access to productive farmland. Foreign investors through Strange Directly Investment (FDI) schemes have been encouraged to lease land in rural areas in Kingdom of cambodia and Ethiopia. This has led to the loss of farmland, range land, woodlands and water sources from local communities. Large-scale agricultural projects funded by FDI merely employed a few experts specialized in the relevant new technologies.^[xix]

[edit]

In other instances, rural flying may occur in response to social determinants. A study conducted in 2012 indicated that a significant proportion of rural flying in India occurred due to social factors such as migration with household, marriage, and teaching. Migration with households and marriage bear on women in particular as most ofttimes they are the ones required to motility with households and move for marriage, especially in developing regions.^[20]

Rural youth may choose to go out their rural communities as a method of transitioning into adulthood, seeking avenues to greater prosperity. With the stagnation of the rural economy and encouragement from their parents, rural youth may choose to migrate to cities out of social norms – demonstrating leadership and self-respect.^[21] With this societal encouragement combined with depressed rural economies, rural youth grade a large proportion of the migrants moving to urban areas. In Sub-Saharan Africa, a study conducted by Touray in 2006 indicated that nigh xv% (26 meg) of urban migrants were youth.

Lastly, natural disasters tin often exist single-bespeak events that lead to temporarily massive rural-urban migration flows. The 1930s Dust Bowl in the United States, for example, led to the flight of 2.5 meg people from the Plains past 1940, many to the new cities in the West. Information technology is estimated that as many as ane out of every four residents in the Plains States left during the 1930s.^[22] More recently, drought in Syrian arab republic from 2006 to 2011 has prompted a rural exodus to major urban centers. Massive influxes in urban areas, combined with hard living conditions, have prompted some scholars to link the drought to the arrival of the Arab Spring in Syria.^[23]

Examples [edit]

United States and Canada [edit]

The terms are used in the U.s. and Canada to describe the flying of people from rural areas in the Great Plains and Midwest regions, and to a lesser extent rural areas of the northeast and southeast and Appalachia. It is besides particularly noticeable in parts of Atlantic Canada (specially Newfoundland), since the plummet of Atlantic cod fishing fields in 1992.

Rural counties in the U.s.a. make upwardly most 70 percent of the nation's country mass. Historically, population increase from births in rural areas more compensated for the number of people moving from rural areas to urban areas, but from 2010 to 2016, rural areas lost population in absolute numbers for the first time.^[24]

China [edit]

China, similar many other currently industrializing countries, has had a relatively late start to rural flight. Until 1983, the Chinese government, through the hukou organisation, greatly restricted the power of their citizens to internally drift. Since 1983, the Chinese authorities has progressively lifted the restrictions on internal migration. This has led to a cracking increase in the number of people migrating to urban areas.^[25] However, fifty-fifty today, the hukou organisation limits the ability of rural migrants to receive total access to urban social services at the urban subsidized costs.^[26]

As with nigh examples of rural flight, several factors have led towards Communist china's massive urbanization. Income disparity, family unit force per unit area, surplus labor in rural areas due to higher boilerplate fertility rates, and improved living weather all play a office in contributing to the flows of migrants from rural to urban areas.^[27] Approximately, 250 meg rural migrants at present alive in cities with 54% of the total Chinese population living in urban areas.^[26]

England and Wales [edit]

A focus by landowners on efficient production led to the enclosure of the commons in the 16th and 17th centuries.^[28] This created unrest in rural areas every bit tenants were then unable to graze their livestock. They sometimes resorted to illegal means to support their families.^[29] This was followed, in turn, by penal transportation which sent offenders out of the country, often Australia. Somewhen, economic measures produced the British Agricultural Revolution.^[thirty]

Deutschland [edit]

Eye ages [edit]

Rural flight has been occurring to some caste in Deutschland since the 11th century. A corresponding principle of High german constabulary is Stadtluft macht frei ("urban center air makes you gratuitous"), in longer form Stadtluft macht frei nach Jahr und Tag ("city air makes you free after a yr and a day"): by custom and, from 1231/32, past statute, a serf who had spent a yr and a mean solar day in a city was complimentary, and could non be reclaimed past their former principal.

High german Landflucht [edit]

Landflucht ("flight from the land") refers to the mass migration of peasants into the cities that occurred in Germany (and throughout most of Europe) in the late 19th century.

In 1870 the rural population of Germany constituted 64% of the population; by 1907 it had shrunk to 33%.^[31] In 1900 lone, the Prussian provinces of East Prussia, West Prussia, Posen, Silesia, and Pomerania lost about 1,600,000 people to the cities,^[32] where these former agricultural workers were captivated into the rapidly growing factory labor class;^[33] I of the causes of this mass-migration was the decrease in rural income compared to the rates of pay in the cities.^[34]

Landflucht resulted in a major transformation of the German countryside and agriculture. Mechanized agriculture and migrant workers, particularly Poles from the east (Sachsengänger), became more common. This was peculiarly true in the province of Posen that was gained by Prussia when Poland was partitioned.^[34] The Polish population of eastern Deutschland was one of the justifications for the creation of the "Smoothen corridor" after World War I and the absorption of the state due east of the Oder-Neisse line into Poland later on World War Two. Also, some labor-intensive enterprises were replaced by much less labor-intensive ones such as game preserves.^[35]

The word Landflucht has negative connotations in German, every bit it was coined by agricultural employers, often of the German aristocracy, who were lamenting their labor shortages.^{[33] [36]}

Scotland [edit]

The rural exodus of Scotland followed that of England, but delayed by several centuries. Consolidation of farms and elimination of inefficient tenants occurred over about 110 years from the 18th to the 19th centuries.^[37] Samuel Johnson encountered this in 1773 and documented it in his work A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland. He deplored the exodus but did not have the information to analyze the problem.^[38]

Sweden [edit]

Rural flight and out-migration in Sweden can be traced in two distinct waves. The first, starting time in the 1850s when 82% of the Swedish population lived in rural areas, and continuing till the late 1880s, was mostly due to push button factors in the countryside related to poverty, unemployment, depression agricultural wages, debt peonage, semi-feudalism, and religious oppression by the State church. Nigh of the migration was ad-hoc and directed towards emigration to the 3 big cities of Sweden, America, Kingdom of denmark, or Germany. Many of these beginning emigrants were unskilled, barely literate laborers who sought farm work or daily wage labour in the cities.

The second wave started from the late 1890s and reached its peak between 1922 and 1967, with the highest rates of rural flight occurring in the 1920s and the 1950s. This was mostly "pull factors" due to the economical nail and industrial prosperity in Sweden wherein the massive economic expansion and wage increases in the urban areas pulled young people to migrate for work and at the same fourth dimension drove downward work opportunities in the countryside. Between 1925 and 1965, Sweden's GDP per capita increased from US$850 to US$6200. Simultaneously, the percentage of the population living in rural areas decreased drastically from 54% in 1925 to 21% in 1965.

Russia and the sometime Soviet states [edit]

Rural flight began later for Russia and the sometime states of the USSR than in Western Europe. In 1926 merely 18% of Russians lived in urban areas, compared to over 75% at the aforementioned time in the United Kingdom. Although the process began subsequently, throughout Earth State of war II and the decades immediately proceeding, rural flying proceeded at a rapid stride. Past 1965, 53% of Russians lived in urban areas.^[39] Statistics compiled by M. Ya Sonin, a Soviet author, in 1959, demonstrate the rapid urbanization of the USSR. Betwixt 1939 and 1959, the rural population declined by 21.3 meg, while that of urban centers increased by 39.4 million. Of this dramatic shift in population, rural flight accounts for more lx% of the change.^[xl] Generally, most rural migrants tended to settle in cities and towns within their district.^[39] Rural flying persisted through the majority of the 20th century. Still, with the end of the Soviet Spousal relationship, rural flight reversed equally political and economical instability in the cities prompted many urban dwellers to render to rural villages.^[41]

The defunct church in the abandoned hamlet Novospasskoye, Saratov Oblast, Russia

Rural flight did not occur uniformly throughout the USSR. Western Russia and Ukraine experienced the greatest declines in rural population, 30% and 17% respectively. Conversely, peripheral regions of the USSR, similar Cardinal Asia, experienced gains, contradicting the full general pattern of rural-urban migration of this catamenia. Increased diversification of crops and labor shortages were principal contributors to the gains in rural population in the periphery.^[39]

Rural flying in Russian federation and the former USSR had several major determinants. The industrialization of agriculture, which came later in Russia and the onetime USSR, led to declines in available rural jobs. Lower living standards and tough work also motivated some peasants to migrate to urban areas.^[39] In particular, the Soviet kolkhoz arrangement (the collective farms in the Soviet Union) aided in maintaining low living standards for Soviet peasants. Beginning around 1928, the kolkhoz system replaced family farms throughout the Soviet Spousal relationship. Forced to work long hours for depression pay at rates fixed by the government and often unadjusted to inflation, Russian peasants experienced quite low living-conditions - specially compared to urban life.^[42] While Brezhnev'due south wage reforms in 1965 ameliorated the low wages received past peasants, rural life remained suffocating, specially for the skilled and the educated.^[41]

Although migrants came from all segments of gild, several groups were more likely to migrate than others. Similar other examples of rural flight, the immature were more probable than the old to migrate to the cities. Immature women under xx were the most likely segment of the population to leave rural life. This exodus of young women further exacerbated the demographic transitions occurring in rural communities as the charge per unit of natural increment dropped precipitously over the grade of the 20th century. Lastly, the skilled and educated were also likely to drift to urban areas.^{[39] [41]}

Mexico [edit]

Rural flying in Mexico occurred throughout the 1930s up until the present day. Like other developing nations, the beginning of industrialization in Mexico quickly accelerated the rate of rural flight.^[43]

In the 1930s, President Cardenas implemented a serial of agricultural reforms that led to massive redistribution of agricultural land among the rural peasants. Some commentators have after dubbed the menstruum from 1940 to 1965 every bit the "Golden Era for Mexican Migration."^[43] During this period, Mexican agronomics grew at an average rate of 5.7% outpacing the natural increase of 3% of the rural population. Meantime, regime policies favoring industrialization led to a massive increment of industrial jobs in the cities. Statistics compiled in Mexico City demonstrate this trend with over ane.eight million jobs created over the course of the 1940s, 50s, and 60s.^[43] Immature people with schooling were the segment of population most probable to migrate abroad from rural life to urban life, attracted by the promise of many jobs and a more modern lifestyle equally compared to the conservative conditions in rural villages. Additionally, due to the big demand for new workers, many of these jobs had low entrance requirements that also provided on-site chore training opening the avenue for migration to many rural residents. From 1940 to most 1965, rural flight occurred in a tedious, notwithstanding steady footstep with both agriculture and manufacture growing concurrently.^[43]

However, as authorities policies increasingly favored industry over agriculture, rural conditions began to deteriorate. In 1957, the Mexican authorities began to regulate the price of maize through massive imports in social club to keep low urban food costs.^[43] This regulation severely undercut the market place price of maize lowering the profit margins of small farmers. At the same fourth dimension, the Greenish Revolution had entered into Mexican agronomics. Inspired by the work of Norman Borlaug, farmers that employed hybrid seeds and fertilizer supplements were able to double or even triple their yields per acre.^[44] Unfortunately, these products came at a relatively high cost, out of the achieve of many farmers struggling after the devaluation of the price of maize. The combined effects of the maize price regulation and the Greenish Revolution was the consolidation of pocket-sized farms into larger estates.^[45] A 1974 study conducted by Osorio concluded that in 1960, nearly fifty.3% of the individual state plots in Mexico contained less than 5 hectares of country. In contrast, the acme 0.v% of estates past land spanned 28.3% of all arable state. As many small farmers lost land, they either migrated to the cities or became migrant workers roving from large estate to large manor. Between 1950 and 1970, the proportion of migrant workers increased from 36.7% to 54% of the total population.^[46] The centralized design of industrial development and authorities policies overwhelmingly favoring industrialization contributed to massive rural flight in Mexico beginning in the late 1960s until the present solar day.^[43]

Consequences of rural flight [edit]

Rural migrants to cities face several challenges that may hinder their quality of life upon moving into urbanized areas. Many migrants do not accept the education or skills to acquire decent jobs in cities and are then forced into unstable, low paying jobs. The steady stream of new rural migrants worsens underemployment and unemployment, mutual amid rural migrants. Employers offer lower wages and poorer labor conditions to rural migrants, who must compete with each other for limited jobs, oft unaware of their labor rights. Rural migrants often experience poor living conditions too. Many cities have exploded in population; services and infrastructure, in these cities, are unable to keep up with population growth. Massive influxes in rural population tin can lead to severe housing shortages, inadequate water and energy supply, and full general slum-like weather condition throughout cities.^{[ii] [21]}

Additionally, rural migrants often struggle adjusting to metropolis life. In some instances, in that location are cultural differences betwixt the rural and urban areas of a region. Lost in urban regions, it becomes difficult for them to continue property onto their cultural traditions. Urban residents may also wait down upon these newcomers to the city who are ofttimes unaware of city social norms. Both marginalized and separated from their home cultures, migrants face many social challenges when moving to cities.^[21]

Women, in particular, face up a unique set up of challenges. Some women undergo rural flight to escape domestic abuse or forced early marriages. Some parents choose to send women to cities to find jobs in society to send remittances back home. Once in the city, employers may attempt to take reward of these women preying on their unfamiliarity with labor laws and social networks on which to rely. In the worst of cases, destitution may strength women into prostitution, exposing them to social stigma and the risks of sexually transmitted diseases.^[21]

See also [edit]

• Demographic history of the United States
• Highland Clearances
• Rural evolution
• Rural ghetto
• Rural sociology
• Unpromising villages

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ 2000 U.S. Census Data
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4. ^ Juan, Shan. "Rural exodus to cities continue". China Daily . Retrieved 13 March 2014.
5. ^ Cronon, William (1991). Nature'southward Metropolis: Chicago and the Cracking West . New York: Norton.
6. ^ Cooper, Michael 50. (2004). Dust to swallow: drought and depression in the 1930s . New York: Blaring.
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8. ^ "Living with Hogs in Rural Iowa". Iowa Ag Review. Iowa Country University. 2003. Retrieved 25 November 2009.
9. ^ "Changes in Iowa farm structure"; University of Iowa Extension;
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11. ^ Loyalka, Prashant; Rozelle, Scott; Luo, Renfu; Zhang, Linxiu; Liu, Chengfang (November 2010). "The Effect of Primary School Mergers on Bookish Operation of Students in Rural China". International Journal of Educational Evolution. xxx (6): 570–585. doi:x.1016/j.ijedudev.2010.05.003.
12. ^ "In the Wake of Nuclear Disaster, Animals Are Thriving in the Cherry Wood of Chernobyl". 19 February 2019.
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14. ^ Gugler, Josef. "Overurbanization Reconsidered." Economic Development and Cultural Change 31, no. ane (1 October 1982): 173–89.
15. ^ Davis, Kingsley, and Hilda Hertz Golden. "Urbanization and the Development of Pre-Industrial Areas." Economical Development and Cultural Change 3, no. ane (October 1954): 6–26.
16. ^ Perz, Stephen (2000). "The Rural Exodus in the Context of Economic Crisis, Globalization, and Reform in Brazil". The International Migration Review. 34 (3): 842–881. doi:10.1177/019791830003400308. JSTOR 2675947. S2CID 220350452.
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20. ^ Hassan, Tarique; Khan, Jabir (December 2012). "Determinants of Rural Out-Migration in India". International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences. i (12). Retrieved 13 March 2014.
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23. ^ Aukalh, R. (xvi March 2013). "A rural exodus as drought takes hold of Syria". Toronto Star . Retrieved xiii March 2014.
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27. ^ "Labour Migration". International labour arrangement. Retrieved xviii April 2014.
28. ^ Beresford, Maurice (1998). "The Lost Villages of England (Revised ed.)". Sutton.
29. ^ Shoemaker, Robert B. (1999). "Prosecution and Punishment. Petty criminal offense and the law in London and rural Middlesex, c. 1660–1725". Essex: Longman: Harlow. ISBN978-0-582-23889-iii.
30. ^ Landes, David S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 18. ISBN978-0-521-09418-4.
31. ^ SchapiroShotwell; 1922, p. 300.
32. ^ Kirk1969, p. 139.
33. ^ ^{a b} Mises2006, p. eight.
34. ^ ^{a b} Shafir 1996, p. 150.
35. ^ Drage 1909, p. 77.
36. ^ McLean, Kromkowski 1991, p. 56.
37. ^ Richards, Eric (2008). "Answers and Questions". The Highland Clearances: People, Landlords and Rural Turmoil. Edinburgh: Birlinn Ltd.
38. ^ Johnson, Samuel (2006) [1775]. A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland and the Journal of a Bout to the Hebrides (James Boswell ed.). London: Penguin UK.
39. ^ ^{a b c d eastward} Wadekin, Karl-Eugen (October 1966). "Internal Migration and the Flying from the Land in USSR". Soviet Studies. 18 (2): 131–152. doi:10.1080/09668136608410523. JSTOR 149517.
40. ^ Sonin, One thousand. Ya. (March 1959). "Vosproizvodstvo rabochei sily v SSSR i balans truda": 144.
41. ^ ^{a b c} Wegren, Stephen K. (July 1995). "Rural Migration and Agrestal Reform in Russia: A Research Annotation". Europe-Asia Studies. 47 (five): 877–888. doi:10.1080/09668139508412292. JSTOR 152691. PMID 12320195.
42. ^ Editors of the Encyclopædia Britannica. "kolkhoz". Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 29 March 2014.
43. ^ ^{a b c d due east f} Arizpe, Lourdes (Wintertime 1981). "The Rural Exodus in United mexican states and Mexican Migration to the U.s.". International Migration Review. 15 (iv): 626–649. doi:10.2307/2545516. JSTOR 2545516. PMID 12265223.
44. ^ Thurow, Roger; Kilman, Scott (2009). Plenty: Why the Earth's Poorest Starve in an Age of Plenty. New York, NY: PublicAffairs.
45. ^ Shaw, R. Paul (Oct 1974). "Land Tenure and the Rural Exodus in Latin America". Economical Evolution and Cultural Change. 23 (1): 123–132. doi:10.1086/450773. JSTOR 1153146. S2CID 154768869.
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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rural_flight

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